The Ancient Society

The whole Shona way of life is geared towards dependence. The Shona, being a realist, is aware of the uncertainty of life. There are many hazards — disease, death, accident, drought and famine; indeed at any moment misfortune may visit one or more of the family kin. There was also the risk in earlier times of attack by other tribes, notably the Matabele.

One lived in an unfriendly world and so it was a sine qua non that in order to exist one could hardly fend for one's own but the chances of survival were greatly enhanced if the family stood together as a group, always ready to lend a hand.

Should one fall by the way, temporarily or permanently through sickness, the family group would till the lands, herd the cattle, and so on.

In this subsistence economy there was no place or scope for the individual. He was much more protected if he threw in his lot with his blood relations.

This desire to identify himself with his people is another reason for conformity. If each has to depend on the other, peace is more likely to reign in the group when all have more or less the same activities and interests.

This desire is extended further into all other spheres not only in dress, but also in house design and in the pattern of architecture. One can expect that soon the manners will become similar and stereotyped.

In Shona society there are few special positions or professions open to people of skill or individuality. Perhaps the most notable of all are the herbalist and mbira player, and these occupations do earn for these people a position of trust and regard.

Another position of status is the councillor of the chief and there may be a few such men, specially selected by the chief, who assist him with court work and perhaps the only other position of authority is that wielded by the headman (sabhuku) who is also appointed by the chief. He has the responsibility of guarding the interests of the chief in his group of villages and settling minor disputes.

The contrast, however, between European society and African society in the professions and trades open to men is quite striking and the lack of skills and trades in African society also tends to make men and their families equal in status.

It should not be thought however that all men and women are equal and enjoy the same social status. The exceptions already quoted do permit the sabhuku and the chief to better themselves materially although these advantages are only modest in extent.

Within this society itself, however, there exists a whole hierarchial system of social differences.

Special duties fall on the different relations and these confer on them a special status which often gives power to a particular individual.

The father has special rights over his wife and children and the father and mother in turn have a special place of regard with increasing age.

The grandparents are consulted on matters of procedure and, not least, they train the grandchildren in manners.

The father and mother-in-law are held in special awe and respect by the family of the husband. The tezvara (father-in-law) is not to be trifled with.

There are special ways in which the girl's family must be received, and should her father die his younger brother, even if only a young man or even a child, is to be shown the same respect as if the father were alive. He will be given a special place at the dare.

The sisters of the father have special duties in the village, particularly the youngest sister. She will be the intermediary between the father's children when advice or permission on an important matter such as a boy wanting permission to marry a certain girl, and to her also falls the responsibility of instructing a boy or girl before marriage on matters of sex and marital procedure.

Also given a special place in the family circle is the muzukuru (nephew or niece), the most important being the eldest son of the eldest sister of the father. He has the right to settle minor family squabbles and disagreements, before others are called in.

The mukwasha (son-in-law) too has certain specific duties — some rather menial — at community gatherings. For instance, it is his duty to skin the beast; it is also his responsibility to gather the firewood on which the meat is to be roasted.

When he comes to stay at the home of his wife's parents, he must prepare the fire at the dare and when he eats there he may not sit in the company of his wife's father, but with the young unmarried sons.

The eldest son in the family has a position of status since he will become the head of the family unit on his father's death and he may act for his father when he is away.

The Shona have devised or introduced other practices which are not easy to explain. Probably these customs too have as their basis the object of keeping the family more closely linked.

For example, the "joking relationship" which exists between the varamu who are the brothers-in-law or sisters-in-law in two families concerned in a marriage.

A brother-in-law is permitted to play, tease, fondle, hold and become intimate (except in sexual matters) with his brothers-in-law or sisters-in-law and vice versa. On the other hand no intimacy is permitted between the kin of the same blood relationship, nor between cognates of different generations.

The object of permitting the varamu to become so friendly might be a protective measure to ensure that in the event of death of the husband, the surviving spouse will have established good and happy relations, so that one of them would be more ready to take her and her dependents on in marriage.

One might also explain the ritual friendship (usahwira) which is such a striking feature of Shona life, on the need for support by others. The closely knit family circle can be depended on to help a man or woman on the many occasions when such help may be needed.

There are exceptions however, as for example when outside support would be better than that from within the family group. There may be reasons for a man preferring to talk over some important matter with a true and trusted friend. Such a person could lend a helping hand when it would be preferable not to rely on aid from his own relations.

And so in traditional Shona circles each married man generally has such a friend whom he knows will never let him down, who will stand by him at all hours of need and who will never doubt his cause up to the last day of his life.

In European society there is no such device or mechanism. Among Europeans true and absolute friendships are few and far between.

The dependence of men on each other is extended beyond their immediate family circle to the much larger circle of the clan in which they have the same totem.

This close tie is exemplified by each clan having its own totem, and is extremely strong among the Shona tribes today, each man in his clan believing that he is related by blood to all the men in it.

The clan typically occupies a defined area with strictly defined boundaries under its chief who represents an offspring of the original founder of the tribe by descent.

He is the spiritual leader of the clan and all the agnates can be regarded as his descendants. There must be a feeling of security in having this agnatic group living together ready to protect each other from outside attack and the whole group looking upon itself as one large family.

The Shona declare that a happy and pleasant countenance is desirable if one is to be on good terms with one's fellow men. An unhappy or sour or unpleasant demeanor is apt to be linked with the witch.

Therefore on the whole the tendency is towards the encouragement of pleasurable activities both for the individual in his daily life or in a group.

It is important for a wife not to seclude herself from others, and whenever she is approached by another person, that she should have a pleasant manner. There is no need to be hilarious or friendly but rather to combine good behavior with a pleasant countenance.

The Shona do not hesitate to avail themselves of the pleasurable sensations with which nature has endowed man. The Shona take an intense interest in sex, thus in sexual matters there appears to be little restraint in married life.

I would prefer to regard this as a feature of the Shona not to interfere with the natural functions of life which excite the feelings of love and pleasure and happiness.

Not that life is promiscuous; married life is sacred and it is anti-social for either a man or woman to have sexual relations unless properly married.

I might be able to link the habits of married life with the Shona's constant and unusual pleasure taken in the communal beer drinks.

The majority of Shona drink and from early life the children are given sweet unfermented beer and attend parties with their parents. But they accept that alcohol creates a pleasant feeling when taken in moderation and he therefore encourages social drinking as it would tend to make men happier, more relaxed and would encourage better relationships with each other.

However this does not follow always, for many people cannot follow the normal course which is the object of this communal form of social relationships.

A fair number suffer from an emotional instability which becomes aggravated in the presence of alcohol while others become addicted to drink and many of the homicides, injuries and bad relationships occur as a consequence of these occasions.

Alcohol is used for all ceremonies. Its pleasurable effects are known and a congregation in a happy frame of mind is preferred.

At the many ceremonies I have attended the decorum of the people was good, and the beer was always handed round in accordance with procedure. Seldom was anyone in a state unfit to attend.

The mood was comparable to that seen at a European sundowner party at which there is obviously much pleasure at the renewal of acquaintanceship and the success of the affair seems to revolve around the drinks.

Take away the drinks and it would be hard to maintain this social occasion.

Pleasure, too, in the form of a beer party is given to the villagers when their gardens are weeded or ploughed or their crops winnowed.

On these occasions of maricho each householder invites his neighbors to come and lend a hand so that the task can be completed in a day or so. It fosters friendly relations with one's relatives and friends.

The Shona encourage the pleasures of life if these are provided by nature, so long as in the process of their enjoyment no person is denied his share or is harmed in any way.

There are no laws against the use of dagga or of sexual stimulants if the individual thinks these are necessary for his wellbeing. So long as he is apparently happy in their use and provided others are not harmed thereby he can indulge freely.

Hemp-smoking has been for centuries a common feature among the Shona tribes. It is mentioned by Dos Santos who calls the hemp bangue and says that the people used to grind and eat it, taking it with water, whereupon they could remain without food for several days. It was more intoxicating than their beer (pombe).

Monomotapa Gatsi Rusere (1597-1624) is said to have been a passionate hemp-smoker and was nicknamed "Monomotapa Bangueiro." The Karanga also used to smoke hemp after having killed a lion or murdered a person.

It was imported all along the East Coast by Persian and Indian traders. In Brazil hemp is known as bange and was most likely carried there by the Portuguese or by African slaves. Hemp smoking is also mentioned in a Karanga tale about two friends who were both called Zinwa-mbanje (he who drinks hemp).

I stress the need not to limit another person in the process, for one continually meets the urbanized wife who protests about the drinking habits of her husband because he fails in his service to the family. Because of this the family income is dissipated and the children are not provided with clothes.

The Shona appreciate the virtues of life. There is no quality of goodness which is not accepted or encouraged in their society. They are as conscious of the need for the correct behavior as any race I know. In this respect they excel.

Indeed the more traditional the Shona the more noticeable are these qualities. Many a visitor to the African villages In the earlier part of this century has remarked on the exemplary honesty displayed by them.

One could, and still can leave articles of clothing or valuables about with absolute safety in many of the reserves. These will not be touched even though the African must know that there is little chance of being detected if these wore removed. Within their own society such honesty is equally well observed.

The Shona do not know two standards. They know only one and it is unfair to judge those Africans who have been removed from this influence and, lacking in strict family ties and discipline, have been allowed to become demoralised through urban social factors.

By this I do not wish to imply that urbanisation is not a necessary evolutionary process through which the African people must pass. The clock cannot be put back.

The point I wanted to make is that the rural Shona are virtuous people. The rural villagers have no time for greed. It Is not tolerated by them. Food in any case is hardly ever plentiful and the one who is greedy must of necessity take away from other hungry mouths.

A man must eat normally. He can eat till he is full and satisfied but must neither take away from the stores nor eat before his turn.

Indeed, in Shona society no person is permitted to eat alone. it is antisocial. Every person must eat and share the meal with his relations and friends living at the time in the village. Table manners are equally important. Each child is brought up to know when he can sit down to eat, where his place in the eating group is, when he may rise, and so on.

He is made not to think of himself only, for there are others in the world who have to be considered. Europeans sometimes think that "the African is ever ready to take". When an African is offered food or other items he usually accepts gratefully the gifts because it is impolite to refuse something offered to him. Further, it must be remembered that most Africans are in need of what they find offered them.

Great stress is placed by the Shona on telling the absolute truth. I have repeatedly found evidence that they are a truth-loving people. In my researches amongst them I have never once been misled by my many sources.

This work was carried out in all parts of the country and I had ample opportunity of checking and rechecking their statements and time has shown that the information received has been corroborated by other workers.

What has struck me too is that if my sources refused to divulge a certain matter they would say so and no one tried to fabricate anything. People have felt that the African would deliberately confuse me in my work.

Not so; they seemed to realise the importance of the work and they did not deviate in telling me what was the truth. I believe in this regard they are quite remarkable.

In their traditional society only the truth is accepted and encouraged as the only proper way to get on in the world. Children are severely thrashed by their parents if they are found lying for the Shona appreciate the chaos and unhappiness that can happen in life if the truth is not practised.

I have stressed too how careful the Shona is in not showing any sign of jealousy for this is a characteristic of the witch. Anyone who earns such a reputation runs the serious risk of being linked with witchcraft. Hence the importance in traditional society for all to have the same possessions — for it is the wealthy who provoke jealousy and in this way the man who is rich is liable to be selected by the envious person.

It is better to be the same as the others and in this way a more peaceful existence can be assured. Although the Shona are strongly opposed to any display of jealousy, they accept that there arc those who are by nature jealous and it is from these people that the witches are drawn. It is an hereditary trait and in the case of the witch, she is possessed with a spirit which exhibits a strong jealous nature.

The Shona are moved by kindness. They appreciate it. Many a European contends that the African does not appreciate what is done for him. Very often it is the European who does not realise that kindness is well understood by the recipient because of language difficulties or some other way of expressing his appreciation.

Indeed the African will not easily forget something which he understands has been done for him. I constantly meet this in my medical practice. Few patients openly come up to me and thank me, for they find it difficult to express thanks to one whose manners are different from theirs.

But it may be months or years later when I meet such a patient, I find he is clearly very pleased to see me and I can readily notice this in his reactions. Further, the African who has been treated by me has always been ready to help me in my researches into African customs. They could not have been more helpful — all a token, I feel, of acknowledgement for what has been done for them in the past.

Africans do not encourage begging and I believe I am right in stating that we meet with very few beggars in their society. There are exceptionally few of them as compared with what one finds in a European city. On the other hand it is a fact that in African society charitable bodies do not exist. The reason for this was that no need existed for these in a society where all are equal, enjoy the same opportunities even though the scope is strictly limited.

There is however, another reason for the absence of charitable bodies. Charity often means mixing with strangers, with people whose backgrounds are unknown. They may have been driven away from their homes and wandered about and reach a strange village in desperate straits. Therefore a real fear exists in traditional society that by making contact with these people evil may be brought into their midst.

It is not that the Shona does not want to lend a helping hand. What frightens him is that by befriending the stranger he may expose his family to the evil people of this world. Therefore he is always careful whom he befriends.

No Shona mother will dare leave her child out of her sight for a moment lest another woman who is a witch should become intimate with her offspring and so taint it with her bad influence.

When greeting a stranger hands are not usually shaken but each individual sits a short distance away and claps his own hands. The inference is obvious.

The Shona will go to great lengths to avoid giving offense as he understands it. He respects those who are to be shown respect and he will not deviate from this path. He knows from the earliest days of his life that his father is not to be trifled with. He is to be treated with awe and fear.

The Shona has over the centuries made a close study of the importance of controlling one's feelings and emotions, for nothing is more liable to cause upset or offend than the incorrect word or hasty move. By giving careful thought to any matter, many an unhappy human relationship can be avoided and friendly relations maintained.

And so the Shona have devised and introduced a number of valuable procedures which are designed to keep emotions normal and which will prevent people losing their tempers and so committing an offense. Everything must be done to remove the emotional or prejudicial viewpoint.

These procedures inevitably cause delay and the onlooker may be struck by what appears to be unusual tardiness and lack of interest and enthusiasm. This is far from the case for he is giving considerable thought to any problem. The deliberations are purposely slow so that emotional upsets and consequently bad friendships can be avoided at all costs.

Good normal behavior is thus established in their society. One of the most certain ways of avoiding poor relationships with others is to behave correctly towards the other person. Manners will go a long way towards ensuring this and Shona life is full of the many different procedures to bring this into effect.

The Shona have the nicest manners I have ever seen. They are elaborate, thoughtful and in their traditional society this must go a long way towards ensuring peace and goodwill.

I have been struck, for instance, by the way a junior greets a more senior man or woman. I have been impressed by the way a woman greets a man and vice versa, and by the friendly words or phrases employed when one Shona meets another. It is practised as a continuous whole, and clearly every child is well taught in its details.

One could describe at length the beautiful manners shown by the males and females when eating their food, and even when taking the piece of stiff porridge from the plate. There are rules laid down as to who is to eat first, and no boy dare rise from the eating place until his father has completed his meal. Instead he chews a piece of stiff porridge continuously until the father has had his food.

There are also prescribed manners for the women who eat on their own in the hut. There are many acts of courtesy and of respect which are shown by the son-in-law towards the family of his wife. These too have certain characteristics.

There is a special way of greeting a senior man, and of the position men take up when sitting on the ground to discuss an important matter. There are quite a number of different types of hand clapping, some faster than others, others slow and more sustained, some specially reserved for a chief or a very important visitor, for an honoured man or woman in their society, and so on.

There are strict procedures laid down as to who should start the conversation when people meet. There is the customary way of meeting and addressing one's father and mother, and even one special one of affection when a grandfather and grandmother are greeted. Throughout the society there is a common pattern. These manners are carried out automatically.

In Shona society the tasks and what is expected of any individual no matter what his age or position in the family are carefully laid down by custom. Everyone knows exactly what the aunt does and what the eldest son is permitted to do. The father's rights and privileges are laid down by tradition.

We are not likely to meet an upset in this society on this score for everyone understands his position in the group. Nor does this position vary within the clan or even in the more extended tribal group.

At a beer drink when either the men or the women are waiting for the cup to be passed round, there is a very well-defined method of procedure adopted and no offense will ever be given to the grandfather and father. I stress this care in procedure or what might be referred to as family protocol because it tends to avoid frustration and quarrels among all people and ensure a calmer and more useful existence.

In order to maintain normal and healthy relationships with one's fellow men one should avoid being rushed into taking any hasty decision. Thus the African tends to be slow — he is never rushed. He cannot keep to an appointment to the split second like the European who constantly keeps looking at his watch lest he be late. Ask Africans to meet at a stipulated time and most of them will arrive some considerable time after. Punctuality is not a feature of their lives.

The same characteristic delay occurs if an answer is wanted. He likes to ponder over anything which is important to him for a long time — days, weeks or even months. When the African is asked to make an important decision he does not believe in a quick answer even if this should appear to him to be the correct reply. He likes to "chew" the matter over carefully.

When a son or daughter wishes to marry and have selected the partner, they may not go direct to the father to inform him for this is regarded as the height of disrespect. Instead they must go to the sister of the father; tell her all about it and she in turn will inform him. We can see the function of this procedure.

If the son came to the father directly, the latter might easily have become embarrassed and upset at the arrangement and quarrel with his son over his choice. But by the procedure of indirect approach, even if he is disapproving, he will have calmed down after a few days and so be in a position to give a more balanced decision one way or another as to the choice of his son.

The same indirect approach is made when a disagreement breaks out between a married couple sufficient to lead to a question of separation.

It would be wrong to approach either of the couple's parents direct. It is necessary first for the husband's sister of the particular one who wishes to make the first move, to approach his or her vatete and she in turn will consult with the corresponding parents.

In this way the parents have a chance to consider more carefully any difficulty and, in a better frame of mind, may be able to reach an equitable settlement.

It does not follow necessarily that the marriage will be saved for either of the two may decide after notifying their families through the vatete to report to the chief to dissolve the marriage and so legalise the separation.

The Shona has been taught to be patient for it is no good trying to force his brethren to a quick answer.

Also likely to make for good relations between men is the principle of reciprocation. It is practised by all Shona and I doubt if it is ever omitted in life. Should a person do something for another, no matter how small this act may be, the benefactor should reciprocate, not necessarily with something of equal value but as long as there is a token of appreciation for what is done.

In this way good normal relationships between people are set up. The Shona expects when he does an act of kindness or goodness towards his fellow men that it should be reciprocated.

When a man marries amongst the Korekore he has to pay his father-in-law various sums in money or kind for looking after the girl and paying for the medicines which kept her well as she grew up.

Amongst the Zezuru when the father-in-law goes to collect his cattle, as he climbs the fence of the kraal to inspect the cattle, he is given a small coin for doing this and also another small coin for spending time looking at the cattle.

The Shona cannot live with acute tension within himself. He must let it out. This may at first seem incongruous with the man who is slow to anger and prefers to think slowly and deliberately over his problems. But if the emotional tension reaches above a certain level he must find a means of letting out the steam.

In this way he has his say and calm is more easily restored. The Shona makes allowances for a person in this state. They say it is right and proper for someone to speak his mind under these circumstances in order to clear the air.

The Shona believe in the power of confession. In fact, so necessary is it to confess one's omissions or mistakes or misdeeds that unless this is done illness and misfortune will befall the guilty. Moreover if one confesses, even if sickness has befallen one, recovery can still take place. It is never too late to do this.

If a wife commits adultery and fails to confess this to her husband, her child will fall ill. Therefore, should a child fall ill and the husband is away when he hears of its illness he at once becomes suspicious and might easily call upon his wife to confess her sins for if she does this the child will take a turn for the better and recover. We meet the power of confession when a mother in labour fails to deliver herself of her baby.

When anything abnormal like this happens the midwife and her assistants at once become suspicious. She has misbehaved herself and almost certainly they will think that the mother has had relations with another man. So she is called upon to confess her sin.

If she does this it is certain, we are told, that the labour will assume a normal course but if she refuses to do so she will not only lose her baby but she herself will die. Confession clears the air — and it pleases all concerned. Forgiveness is more likely when confession and a statement of regret is expressed. It causes tension to subside and normal relations to be re-established.

There is another "force" or influence which greatly affects the behavior of the African. This is the "Power of Evil" which the Bantu believe exists in certain people, a force which like the "Creative Force", is passed on to the kin, a power so prevalent that every person must be on guard against it.

The witch is ever jealous, envious, and anyone who is rich, boastful, proud or successful, or quarrels is bound to attract the attention of the witch who will inflict untold sufferings, misery and death upon that fortunate individual. Does this force of evil come from the Creator? What does the African think about this terrible force?

I have asked this and I believe they do not link this force of evil with the Creator or God, but that it arose countless generations before in the group or clan of evil people and the evil spirit, like the shavi or mudzimu, has been handed down in the families. Belief by the African in the cult of evil accounts for — as much as any factor — the great tendency to conform.

Among the Makorekore people are the baboon spirits, the bveni shavi, the only known instance of animal spirit worship in southern Africa. The mediums who are controlled by these spirits are expected to dress in a certain way. The murungu shavi, for instance, requires the chair, the enamel mug or cup and the clothes typifying a white man (long trousers). A bveni shavi will wear a cap of baboon fur, ask for peanuts and raw maize cobs to eat.

Belief in ancestral spirits also accounts for conformity among the Bantu. Belief in this vital force tends to force individuals to behave in a similar manner as others do in this society. It does not tend to spur on the society. The Shona are clear when they state that the vadzimu are their protectors who possess the power of preventing evil from entering their midst in almost the role or guise of a policeman.

These spirits are on guard, so to speak, around and in the midst of their living quarters. In this way the witch can never enter their homes and villages. In many ways the vadzimu are spirits which are more feared and respected than loved.

The awe of the Shona towards their vadzimu is very similar to that of the Jew to God. It is this fear of the power of the vadzimu which has the opposite effect of spurring on the individual.

He is rather forced to conform, not to change, and to live in the same way as his father and forefathers before him. The cult of ancestors tends to create a static society.

Thus we meet two important forces which account for the desire by the African to conform; the first is fear of the ancestral spirits (vadzimu) and the second the fear of the evil spirits in certain people (uroyi).

To the Shona, God is more in the nature of the very Great Spirit, the Creator of all life who does not concern Himself with every item or problem of a person's life — he is far removed and his help is not invoked in the vast majority of instances. For almost every problem or crisis the lesser spirits are prayed to and invoked for their help in solving the difficulty.

Whether this spirit is regarded as the same as God is to the Christian, I much doubt, as this spirit is prayed to and appealed to in the same way as the lesser spirits by giving it presents of consecrated beer to drink and snuff to enjoy.

The Shona have a spiritual faith which in its basic principles has much that the monotheist believes. On the other hand there are very clear differences, the most striking being that the religion in contributing to conformity lacks the dynamism of Christianity. All members of the clans are to be alike, none richer than his fellow man in material culture, although there are accepted differences in the social status in the kin group.

But the religion does not encourage differences which would affect the material status of a person. All are to possess more or less the same, and all are to enjoy the material benefits of life equally. Every man and woman must follow the examples set by their grandparents or departed parents, on this earth.

If a person does not do what one's beloved elders did before him, all will not be well. Should this individual show greed and stray away from the course of life his parents practised, nothing but trouble will follow. I have previously spoken of this feature of Shona behavior as compulsory uniformity.

This is, in my opinion, the most outstanding feature of African life — viz., to be like everyone else, to be just normal. We notice this urge — almost amounting to an obsession — for conformity in almost monotonous regularity in African clothes, living quarters, utensils and so forth. Enter any Shona village in a tribalised area and then compare it with another in that area — one is forcibly struck by the sameness throughout.

They do not seem to have developed any fashion, mode of dress or in living. It is all the same and this appearance in the society has been mistakenly attributed by outsiders and observers to the fact that the African is incompetent, backward, lazy and unambitious. NO! It means that the individual has to live the life of his ancestors. My contention is that no development is permitted beyond the normal in so far as conduct is concerned.

I have found that the Shona has not encouraged the full development of the individual's talent in matters vital to the welfare of the clan. For instance, Shona philosophy has discouraged the African from devising ways of storage or impounding water so that in the event of a drought the community can be saved.

The Shona it will be argued has changed from millet to maize but by so doing no basic alterations have taken place in their spiritual life with the transferring of the course of Nature. There is to be no evolution, no change from the bare standards which would ensure a normal mode of existence.

The aim and object to a happy existence is to live at peace with Nature, to utilise the essentials which ensure a reasonable standard of comfort. There is no need for instance to have spring mattresses to sleep on for nothing can go wrong if the individual sleeps on a reed mat on the ground. It is much safer, more reliable to live simply — which after all is only a matter of becoming accustomed to it.

This approach has been tried out, and as far as he can see, it serves the purpose well. The Shona faith ensures conformity, quite the reverse of Christianity.

I believe that the religious faith of the Shona tends to make all its adherents conform in behavior and outlook. Since one's ancestors were good, kind and decent, the descendants should be satisfied to follow their example. What is good for them is good enough for the children. Let all men be equal with the same opportunities and scope. No more, no less.

The cult of witchcraft also tends to force man to be pleasant, well behaved and to conform. The Shona therefore prefer the normal man. They are not greedy nor do they want to be the best or cleverest in the world. Their philosophy is not towards dynamism. Their religion is static because change or discovery means rivalry and rivalry means loss of friendship amongst people and amongst clans and amongst nations war.

Peace can be preserved best by maintaining the status quo. This is in marked contrast to Christianity which, while it does call upon man to be content and happy with his lot gives scope for change and indeed encourages progress. The difficulty is where to draw the line in change and even leading Christians are not a little concerned at the innovations which are being introduced by many of the scientific discoveries.

The Church has come to terms with scientific discovery, through the genius of Thomas Aquinas of the sixteenth century. The Christian could from then on with a better and clearer conscience, be at peace about progress and its inevitable change in his society and at the same time avoid a feeling of guilt because of his faith.

This resistance to change was strong in Christian Europe some 500 years ago and I can quote no better example than that of Michael Servitus who met his death at Geneva in 1553 because he had the audacity to suggest another concept for the path taken by the blood from the heart to the lungs and thus supplant that of Galen whose hypothesis was accepted by the Church as being correct.

Still the Church did not hold up all thought and there were avenues open to men even in the Dark and Middle ages in which scope for enterprise was permitted so long as Christian dogmas did not suffer.

With the Shona there are no paths open for change. Conformity was strictly enforced in all phases of conduct and behavior and in ritual practices.

It must never be forgotten that there are even in European societies very few geniuses. They are exceptional. No white genius has as yet come out of any part of Africa. A bright man is not a genius and almost all men quoted as being exceptional are, strictly speaking, normal.

Normal mentality is a very fine attribute. Admittedly there are degrees of normality among men and women, some being more gifted or able than others, but the point I want to stress is that most men and women we know are normal.

There are, I think, far more normal Africans than normal Europeans, as it is uncommon to meet many sub-normals in them. A great number of Africans are bright and intelligent but this is what has been encouraged in Africa. There have been fewer geniuses than European ones over the ages, even though genius is rare in European society.

The genius is apt to cause changes in the society because of his discoveries. He is almost certain to meet opposition to his revelations but as a rule his innovations are accepted, even if grudgingly. All this is argument and hypothesis but a genius would not be a welcome figure in African society.

He might easily forfeit his life and almost certainly if he escaped with it, would be driven out. There is no place for these men who come to alter the course of nature. So abnormal a personality is much more likely to be labelled a witch.

In European society the genius generally succeeds in making his contribution even though he may be regarded as a danger in the midst of his fellow men. It is difficult to quieten him. He must burst forth and at all costs reveal his message. He cannot be contained. His secret must be revealed.

It is quite possible that not only is the African more often normal than the European but his physique is more normal. For instance we find that almost all Africans have normal sight.

In Africa the mode is far more towards normality, with less on the extremes of normal. What impresses me so much about African society is the quiet and serene behavior of the men and women; their composure, their pleasant personality. In their traditional way the African is quiet, never loud, never boastful.

It must not be forgotten that mysticism was accepted, indeed flourished during the great Grecian and Egyptian cultures. All Greece believed in the Oracles, in exorcism and in divination. Despite their advanced culture as compared with the rest of the world people believed that there were evil spirits ever ready to penetrate their homes and destroy them.

And despite this they achieved much, Similarly it cannot be said that the failure of African culture to be progressive in the European sense is due to witchcraft because despite it the Greeks and Romans contributed to world knowledge.

It would be wrong however to believe that it was without effect for as I have already stressed, the belief in this cult must restrain many people from giving effect to their ideas and this is enhanced when the religion has a similar effect on the behavior of the individual.

The European, when he saw Africans living under natural conditions, assumed that they were a backward race. He stood back in amazement at this civilisation which he called primitive. No one in fact doubted that they were primitive.

Social anthropologists until recently referred to the tribesmen of Africa as being primitive. All the nations of Europe looked on the African peoples as backward, and even barbarian. But it did not stop there.

Mission stations sprang up and hundreds of brave Christians perished from the tropical climate in the name of Christ. Admittedly there were other reasons for the scramble for Africa—economic, political and so on. But no one can deny the Christian motive.

Nor should it be underestimated as a factor. No missionary even would give it a moment's thought and enquire whether the African had a faith. If he did happen to give this matter consideration then it was nothing more than witchcraft.

And so those well-meaning men and women gave devoted service to the African who saw no reason why their ancient religion should be discarded or its ritual be tampered with. But the white man was not prepared to see the other man's point of view.

Not only did he insist on preaching the Gospel, but in his concern to uplift the African he put up schools and hospitals. Little did he realise that the African was as normal as he was and as capable.

With the advance of Africa, many students of African life and culture have come to realise that Africans are capable and show ability comparable to the peoples of Europe. Given the opportunity and relieved of their traditional religion and the cult of witchcraft, there can be no doubt that the African will take his place among the other nations of the world.

Whilst I can see the virtues of the African's traditional religion, I think the African nations in our modern era, cannot afford to be bound down by conformity even though it may not bring them happiness.

Rather turn to a faith which encourages change and dynamism while at the same time teaching the same virtues of life, so carefully indoctrinated in the Shona faith.

Students of religion may not hold that the Shona doctrine is inferior to that of the Christian but I do not advocate its adoption only because it forces man to follow too closely the example set by his ancestors. The world today demands and expects what we have come to know as "progress and change".

You cannot just keep the world back.